The respiratory system of birds is also characterized by signs of adaptation to flight, during which the body needs enhanced gas exchange. This system of organs in birds is considered one of the most complex among all groups of animals. A long trachea departs from the pharynx, dividing in the chest cavity into two bronchi. At the site of separation of the trachea there is an extension - the lower larynx, in which the vocal cords are located; its walls have bone rings. The lower larynx is a vocal apparatus and is most developed in birds singing and making loud noises. The lungs of birds are small in volume, inelastic and grow to the ribs and spinal column [. They are characterized by a tubular structure and a very dense capillary network. 5 pairs of air sacs are connected with the lungs - thin-walled, easily extensible outgrowths of the ventral branches of the large bronchi, located among the internal organs, between the muscles and in the cavities of the tubular bones of the wings. These bags play a large role in the breathing process of birds during flight. Along with the function of breathing, air sacs carry additional functions: they lighten the body weight of the bird, and adjoining large muscle groups participate in thermoregulation (dissipation of excess heat).
Free-living nematodes:
- live in soil and water;
- participate in the ecology of all ecosystems;
- second only to arthropods.
The concentration of free-living nematodes is about 1 million individuals per 1 m 3.
Harm to humans and animals:
A type of roundworms is common throughout the globe.
General characteristic of type
Circulatory and respiratory systems
Roundworms no respiratory and circulatory system. Almost all members of the nematode family live under anaerobic conditions, and receive oxygen and nutrients in a ready-made form.
In the hypodermal layer, glycogen accumulates, which is also broken down into butyric, valerianic and other important organic acids. The absorption of finished nutrients occurs through the epithelial layer of the primary cavity (intestine), and accumulates in the hypodermis.
Such a primitive life support system makes the respiratory and circulatory systems redundant in the existence of the worm.
Morphology
The structure of the body (from the outer layer to the inner):
- The pseudo-chain is the primary cavity lined with epithelium (intestines).
- The coeloma is a secondary cavity without epithelium.
Digestive system of roundworms
At the front end of the body there is a mouth opening with cuticular lips. Further, the oral capsule begins (in some species armed with teeth), and then a small segment of the esophagus begins.
The entire digestive tract forms one rectum, which is divided into:
- front;
- middle;
- back departments.
In some species, the anus is absent.
Nervous system
Nematode nervous system:
- Peripharyngeal ring - located in the middle of the pharynx with a slope to the dorsal edge (in some species to the ventral)
- Ventral (abdominal) nerve trunk - goes along the lower plane of the body in the ventral shaft of the hypodermis. From it originate the remaining small nerve fibers.
- Dorsal (spinal) nerve trunk - passes in the dorsal roller of the hypodermis. It doesn’t “let in” nerve fibers.
Roundworms can also focus on smell and light.
Reproductive system
They belong to dioecious worms with pronounced sexual dimorphism. Females lay eggs, larvae can hatch either in the external environment or in the body of the female (live birth). Females are larger than males.
The female reproductive system is paired, tubular and consists of:
- ovaries;
- egg lines;
- uterus;
- the vagina.
The ovaries are narrow, blindly bent, gradually turning into wider sections. The uterus is steamy, extending into the vagina, which opens on the ventral side in front of the body. Females can be several times larger than males, the body is straight.
In males, the end of the body is helically wrapped towards the abdominal plane.
The structure of the male reproductive system:
- Tubular testis.
- The seed tube.
- Vas deferens opening to the posterior intestine.
On the cesspool there are copulatory spicules with which the male holds the female.
Some species on the spicules have capillary bursa, which are extended and flattened in the form of wings, the lateral parts of the posterior end of the body.
Excretory system
It consists of two tubules that begin in the back of the body, connecting, form a common duct, opening with a hole on the ventral side of the front end of the body. The movement of the body is carried out only in the dorsoventral (forward) direction.
Begin treatment immediately! Protect yourself and your loved ones!
Representatives of the type of nematodes in the human body
Ascaris is human
The causative agent of ascaris lumbricoides is a nematode, the length of the male is up to 25 centimeters, and the females up to 40 centimeters. Body color from white to pale pink, narrow, cylindrical in shape, pointed at the ends. The mouth is a pair of cuticular lips.
They live in the jejunum and ileum for about a year, capable of living only in the human body. At one time, the female is able to lay up to 240 thousand eggs that go into the environment with feces. Eggs in the environment can survive up to 5 years, thanks to a five-layer outer shell, which protects from most environmental factors.
Development Biology:
- They enter the rectum through food or dirty water, then localized in the small intestine.
- After 21 days, the larvae hatch, penetrate the intestinal mucosa. With the flow of blood migrate through the internal organs: liver, right heart, lungs.
- Once through the pulmonary circulation in the lungs, the larvae break through the alveolar capillaries and, together with a cough or exhaled air, enter the oral cavity.
- Through the oral cavity are swallowed back into the digestive tract.
The entire migration period takes up to two weeks. The female becomes sexually mature after 20 days and is able to lay eggs.
Pinworm
A nematode that causes a common disease is enterobiasis. This disease is also called "unwashed hands disease", as the pathogen eggs often enter the human body through dirty food and hands. Mostly children are affected. The causative agent is localized in all parts of the intestine, and the main symptom of the disease is the anus tooth.
The causative agent of enterobius is a nematode with an elongated body and narrowed ends. Females reach a length of up to 12 millimeters, and males up to 5 millimeters.
The color of the pathogen is grayish-white. A special vesicle is located at the mouth opening from the side of the abdominal cavity, with the help of which the helminth is attached to the intestinal mucosa.
Development Biology:
- enter the human body with food, localized in the lower parts of the small intestine, attached to the intestinal mucosa.
- The female becomes sexually mature at the age of 4 weeks.
- The fertilized female moves to the rectum for laying eggs.
- At night, it comes out from the anus and lays eggs in the ductal folds, after which it dies.
- One female is able to lay up to two thousand eggs.
Vlasoglav
Nematode, the disease causing trichocephalosis. The causative agent is considered only human, especially small children are susceptible. The habitat is the initial part of the colon. With a small invasion, the symptoms of the disease are almost not manifested, but with severe infection, diarrhea, vomiting, prolapse of the rectum are possible, and they are also one of the causes of inflammation of the appendix.
The causative agent of trichocephalus trichiurus is a helminth from 3.5 to 5 centimeters in length.
The main distinguishing feature is the presence of a filamentous part on the front of the trunk, on which the mouth opening and esophagus are located. In the back of the sealed part are the remaining organs of the helminth. One individual is able to live in the human body up to 5 years.
Development Biology:
- Helminth eggs enter the human digestive tract through contaminated food or water.
- Once in the small intestine, hatching of larvae occurs within a few days.
- Immediately migrate to the colon.
- In the thick section, they are attached to the mucous membrane by the filamentous process, cutting through the mucous membrane. They feed on blood and tissue fluid. After 3 months, they become sexually mature ..
- For a day, a whipworm female is able to lay 20 thousand eggs.
A prerequisite for the maturation of an invasive egg is to stay in moist soil at a temperature of 24-30 degrees for 10-40 days. After ripening, they remain capable of infection for several months.
Flat and Round Worms: Differences
Differences between flat and round worms:
- Intestines - in flatworms there is only a mouth opening, anal is absent. Excretion is carried out through the small tubules, which penetrate the entire body of the worm and exit through the outer integument. Nematodes have a mouth and anus, and the intestinal tract is through.
- Reproductive system -, with the exception of the Schistosomatidae trematode family, hermaphrodites. It is believed that reproduction in flatworms occurs cross, but self-fertilization is not excluded. Nematodes have a strict distribution of sexes pronounced sexual dimorphism.
- The presence of cavities - the roundworm has a primary and secondary cavity, when, like flatworms, they refer to barren animals. In the skin-muscle sac of trematodes, digestive and excretory processes and absorption of nutrients occur.
- Nematodes have only longitudinal muscles, which allow the worm to move exclusively in the dorsoventral direction, and flat worms also have transverse and longitudinal muscles.
Discovery of Crete - Mycenaean (Aegean) civilization
The first centers of culture were discovered by the excavations of Heinrich Schliemann in Mycenae (1876), Arthur Evans on the island of Crete (since 1899). From the 19th century investigated several hundred monuments: burial grounds, settlements, large cities such as Poliochny on the island of Lemnos with a stone wall 5 m high, Filakopi on the island of Milos; royal residences - Troy, the palaces of Crete (Knossos, Mallia, Festus), the Acropolis of Mycenae.
The most famous archaeological cultures of this period are the Minoan, or Cretan, and Mycenaean, according to which it got its name, but there are also several local cultures, in particular the Cycladic and Hellenic.
Crito - Mycenaean (Aegean) civilization (period) is divided into 2 parts:
1. Minoan civilization (divided into 3 periods)
2. Greek civilization (Balkan Greece; Mycenaean civilization) (divided into 3 periods)
Minoan civilization - refers to the Bronze Age and is part of the Crete - Mycenaean period (civilization) of the island of Crete (2600-1450 BC). The main centers of culture and civilization were: so-called. “Palaces” are complex economic and political complexes, the largest of which existed in Knossos, Festus, Zakros and Tilissa.
The culture is named after the mythical king Crete Minos - the owner of the labyrinth, built, according to legend, Daedalus.
The Minoans conducted active maritime trade (the island was located at the intersection of the main sea trade routes), engaged in piracy, maintained friendly relations with ancient Egypt.
In the Middle Minoan period, the influence of culture spread to mainland Greece, and in the same period the Cycladic culture was assimilated by the Minoans. Invasion of Crete by Achaean Greeks not led to cultural decline, and to a new stage in its development - the emergence of a mixed Mycenaean culture, whose influence extended to mainland Greece, Crete, the islands of the Aegean Sea and a number of territories of the eastern Mediterranean. Indigenous Cretans continued to play at least an important cultural role in Mycenaean Greece. After the Dorian invasion, the Minoan culture completely disappears, and the indigenous population of Crete was assimilated by the Greeks no later than the 4th-3rd centuries. BC.
Periodization
Crito-Mycenaean period (civilization) (Aegean civilization) (end of III – II millennium BC), on the islands of the Aegean Sea, Crete, in mainland Greece and Asia Minor (Anatolia). Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. The emergence of the first state formations. The development of navigation. Establishment of trade and diplomatic contacts with the civilizations of the Ancient East. The emergence of original writing. For Crete and mainland Greece, various development periods are distinguished at this stage, since on the island of Crete, where the non-Greek population lived at that time, statehood developed earlier than in Balkan Greece, which suffered at the end of the third millennium BC. e. the conquest of the Achaean Greeks.
1. Minoan civilization (Crete):
1. The Early Minoan period (XXX — XXIII centuries BC). The dominance of patrimonial relations, the beginning of the development of metals, the beginnings of craft, the development of navigation, a relatively high level of agricultural relations.
2. The Middle Minoan period (XXII — XVIII centuries BC). Also known as the period of the "old" or "early" palaces. The emergence of early state formations in different parts of the island. The construction of monumental palace complexes. Early forms of writing.
3. The Late Minoan period (XVII-XII centuries BC). The heyday of Minoan civilization, the unification of Crete, the creation of the sea power of King Minos, the wide scope of Crete's trading activities in the Aegean basin, the heyday of monumental construction (“new” palaces in Knossos, Mallia, Festa). Active contacts with ancient Eastern states. Natural disaster of the middle of the XV century. BC e. becomes the cause of the decline of the Minoan civilization, which created the prerequisites for the conquest of Crete by the Achaeans.
2. Greek civilization (Balkan Greece):
1. Early Hellas period (XXX — XXI centuries BC). Dominance in Balkan Greece tribal relations among the pre-Greek population. The appearance of the first large settlements and proto-palace complexes.
2. The Middle Hellas period (XX — XVII centuries BC). The resettlement in the south of the Balkan Peninsula of the first waves of native speakers of the Greek language - the Achaeans, was accompanied by a slight decrease in the general level of socio-economic development of Greece. The beginning of the decomposition of tribal relations among the Achaeans.
3. Late Hellas period (XVI — XII centuries BC) or Mycenaean civilization (Achaean Greece). The emergence of an early class society among the Achaeans, the formation of a productive economy in agriculture, the emergence of a number of state entities with centers in Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes and others, the formation of the original written language, the flourishing of Mycenaean culture. The Achaeans subjugate Crete and destroy the Minoan civilization. In the XII century. BC e. a new tribal group invades Greece - the Dorians, the death of Mycenaean statehood, the beginning of the Greek dark centuries and the next historical period.
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HISTORY OF GREECE |
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up to XXX c. BC e. |
Prehistoric greece |
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Aegean civilization (Crete - Mycenaean) |
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XXX — XII BC e. |
West Anatolian civilization Minoan civilization: 30 - 23 centuries - Early Minoan period; 23 - 18 centuries - Middle Minoan period; 17th - 12th centuries - Late Minoan period. Cycladic civilization Greek civilization: 30 -21 centuries - Early Hellas period; - 20th - 17th centuries - Middle Hellenic period; - 16 - 12 centuries - Late Hellian period (Mycenaean civilization) (Achaean Greece) |
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Ancient Greece |
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Dark ages |
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Archaic period |
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Classic period |
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Hellenistic period |
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Greece as part of the Roman Empire |
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146 BC e. - 330 n e. |
Roman greece |
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Middle Ages and the New Age |
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Byzantine Empire |
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Duchy of Athens |
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Ottoman Greece |
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Modern greece |
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1. Background of the formation of states in Crete
Crete was located at the crossroads of the sea routes of M. Asia, Syria, North Africa, the Balkan Peninsula, and the island of Aegeida. As a result of communication with different nationalities, the culture of Crete is influenced by, and including from the "river" civilizations that lived in the Middle East (Egypt, Mesopotamia) and from the early agricultural culture of Anatolia, the Danube lowland and Balkan Greece.
The time of the rise of the Minoan civilization is the boundary of 3 - 2 millennia.
There was a jump in production in Crete. The development and production of copper, and then bronze, began. Bronze gradually displaces the stone.
In agriculture, there has also been a leap in cultivating the land and growing crops. Three main crops began to grow: barley, grapes, olives (the so-called "Mediterranean triad"). Excess products appear. Which could be distributed to people in lean years, and also to give to people who were not employed in agriculture - artisans. Thus, the separation of the craft from agricultural. The pottery wheel and the production of ceramics became known.
Exchange and trade between tribes, as well as maritime trade through sea lanes in connection with the development of navigation, began.
The development of fishing and piracy began.
In general, progress appeared in the development of the economy and as a result, an increase in population began on the island of Crete, which settled in fertile places. New settlements are appearing, which are also expanding territorially.
The social process of stratification of the population has begun. It stands out to know, leaders, priests. Slaves from captured people appear.
Stronger and more populous communities subjugate weaker neighbors by force and tax them with different taxes and duties, and also unite in unions for some common benefit.
As a result of all these processes, the first so-called "Palace states" that appear almost simultaneously in different places of Crete.
2. The first class societies and states
On the island there were several independent states, which included several dozen settlements.
According to archeology, several palaces are known: Knossos, Fest, Malia, Kato.
Statehood on the island developed and this gave rise to writing, first pictographic writing, and then syllabic writing appeared (linear letter A)
3. The heyday of Cretan civilization. Knossos Palace
Presumably in the 1700s there was a strong earthquake in Crete, which destroyed all the palaces and buildings, as a result of which a new, more grandiose construction of buildings began. There has been a leap in the development of palace states, the so-called " period of new palaces"Or the Late Minoan period.
The most remarkable architectural structure of this period is open A. Evans - The Palace of Minos in Knossos (labyrinth).
Excavations of A. Evans of the palace of Minos showed the culture of that period. Preserved many vases, jewelry tools, architecture and decoration. The palace was built in the form of a labyrinth, which gave rise to mythology about the bull (monster) Minotaur and Theseus.
Architecture The palaces in Crete are complex and confusing. It is different from Greek architecture. It also lacks heaviness from Egyptian and Assyro - Babylonian architecture. Inside the palaces there was a certain unsystematic nature, but the palaces already had running water and sewage.
The palaces were not fortified throughout civilization, because the population of Crete was safe because there was no one to attack them. There was not a single sea power nearby. They were reliably protected by the sea.
Practiced tavromahiya - games (fight) with bulls, jumping over bulls.
4. The creation of a sea power. The decline of Cretan civilization
The heyday of the Minoan civilization falls on the 16th - 15th centuries BC.
At this time, palaces are being rebuilt in their splendor, masterpieces of art and craft are being created. Crete united under the rule of the kings of Knossos and became a single centralized state.
There was no money yet.
King Minos, according to historians, - the ruler of the sea - thalassocrator. He created a large navy, eradicated piracy, established dominance in the Aegean.
Minoan colonies penetrate into: M. Asia, the Cyclades, Rhodes, Sicily, Southern Italy, the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain).
The Cretans establish lively trade and diplomatic relations with Egypt and the states of the Syro-Phoenician coast.
In the 15th century, as a result of a disaster (earthquake; other versions - volcanic eruption or the invasion of the Greeks - Achaeans) all the palaces and settlements were destroyed, except Knossos. People had to leave the ruins and in many cases forever, many habitats were forgotten for millennia, for example, the Kato - Zakro palace.
Minoan culture could not recover from the catastrophe and began to decline and soon loses its leading position as the cultural center of the entire Aegean basin.
According to one version, the Greeks - Achaeans attacked Crete and plundered the whole of Crete. Archeology indicates that in the territory of Crete, burials were found that were not peculiar to the culture of Crete. Arrowheads, swords, daggers, armor, spears, helmets were not of Cretan origin; the letter changed, the tablets were not Minoan, but Greek; the painting indicates that another culture appeared in Crete, instead of painting with flowers, the paintings began to be dry and lifeless, the so-called " palace style».
From a primitive cultural center, such as Crete for over 5 centuries, it is turning into a remote and backward province.
The main cultural center moves north to mainland Greece, where at that time the so-called Mycenaean culture.