1. The initial period of development of journalism in France.
2. The revolutionary period of French journalism - the times of the French Revolution and the Paris Commune.
3. Modern media in France, their history and today.
The purpose of the lesson is to get acquainted with the history of journalism in France, its formation and current state. French journalism played an important role in the development of world journalism. It was she who contributed to the formation of the so-called revolutionary press, whose freedom-loving principles of activity had a significant impact on the general process of democratization of society and, in particular, journalism.
The first printing house appeared in Paris in 1470, and the first newspaper was published in 1604 - “Gazette Francoise” (“French Newspaper”), but it did not have a regular periodicity. In 1611, the first annual Mercure Francois (French Herald) was founded. In 1631, Theofrast Renodo founded the weekly newspaper Gazette, and it is considered the best publication of the time, due to the variety of subjects, the literary level, regularity and duration of the publication. The Journal de Sawan (Journal of Scientists, 1665) is the first journal-type publication in the world. Its main features - the encyclopedic content, the variety of forms and genres were already found in the magazine "Mercure Galan" ("Gallant Messenger") that appeared in 1672. The first periodical private edition was the monthly Spectator France magazine (French Spectator, 1722). When the first daily de la Magazine de Paris appeared (Paris newspaper, 1777), 27 newspapers were already published in Paris. Newspapers were subject to official preliminary censorship, introduced in 1,629 by Louis X111. In accordance with its requirements, nothing could be printed without the sanction of the police and censor, and it was also forbidden to distribute publications hostile to religion, the king, the state, purity of morals, honor and reputation of private individuals. For the commission of "crimes of the press" in 1660-1765. 869 authors, printing houses, booksellers, and newspaper men were enclosed in the Bastille.
However, the “true” history of the French press began from the time of the French Revolution (1789-1794), which became the cradle of political and revolutionary democratic journalism. In 1789, the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" was adopted, in 1791 the first French constitution. They proclaimed freedom of speech and press, abolished censorship. The number of newspapers and other publications has increased dramatically. Already in 1,789 there were 250 of them, in 1,790–350. Moreover, each publication was accompanied by prominent political figures: Mirabeau - “This Genero” (“General States”), “Courier de Provence” (“Provence Post”), Brissot - “Patriot France”, Demoulins - “Revolucion de France” and “Vienne Cordelier” (“Old
Cordelier "). The Jean Paul Marat newspaper Amy du Pepel (Friend of the People, 4 years) was a militant organ of revolutionary democracy, it defended the interests of the revolution, the need to consolidate all revolutionary forces in order to defeat the interventionists. In 1790, he published a newspaper underground. Later he renamed it the “Newspaper of the French Republic” and directed its efforts at promoting the unification of all revolutionary forces to save the republic. Robespierre published since 1792
the weekly Defenseur de la Constitution, in which he advocated universal suffrage, the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly, and the convening of the Convention.
With the fall of the republic in 1794, civil liberties were virtually eliminated. In 1796, the death penalty was introduced for speaking out against the Directory regime, against private property, for speaking out for the restoration of the old regime or the Jacobin constitution.
At the time of the Consulate and the First Empire, newspapers were not allowed that did not comply with the good customs and principles of the government, which did not show respect for France's friendly countries, as well as for people's sovereignty and the glory of French weapons. The seal during the Restoration (1815-1848) became somewhat freer.
It was allowed to express opinions within the framework of the existing law. In the years 1831-32. More than 400 lawsuits were brought against the press. For all sorts of faults, journalists and editors were imprisoned, fined, etc. Thus, the Tribune newspaper was collectively sentenced to 49 years in prison and 160 thousand fines).
In 1824, there were 12 daily newspapers in Paris authorized by the authorities, their one-time print run was 54 thousand. Ex. The largest of them are Constitucionel.
(“The Constitutionalist”) and “The Journal de debata” (“Debate Newspaper”), which had a circulation of 16 and 13 thousand copies.
The press played an important role in preparing the revolutions of 1,830 and 1,848. The democratic press was widely developed. The most prominent publications were the newspapers Reform, Revue Republiken (Republican Review), Tribune,
"Nacional", "Tan" ("Time"); the weekly Caricature and the daily newspaper Shariwari (Kavardak), Juvenile Caricatures, and Napoleon Satire stood out. In 1848, journalism in France enjoyed almost complete freedom - in a few weeks, about 200 newspapers appeared in Paris.
In 1 835, under the influence of social and technological progress, the world's first news agency, Havas, appeared. Already at the beginning of the century, the country had an existing line of mechanical telegraph. It transmitted the most important government messages, which also got into the newspapers. In the newspaper "Press" in the middle of the 19th century. For the first time, the concept of the mass, "informational" press was applied and formulated - the fusion of journalism and commercial advertising itself. For the first time a full streak of advertising, the first advertising illustration was published in the newspaper Constitucionel in 1851. At the same time, the genre of the newspaper novel feuilleton appeared. In 1850, Louis Ashett created the first monopoly in the history of France on the distribution and transportation of periodicals. Since 1856, the Gavas agency began to use Morse code to transmit news, and since 1866 a reliable permanent connection between Europe and America through an underwater transatlantic cable became possible. An important trace in the history of journalism in France was left by the Paris Commune (1870-1871). During this period, several hundred newspapers, leaflets, and political posters were published. They were clearly propaganda propaganda in nature, they were written and published mainly by active participants in revolutionary events. At this time, a tradition appeared to publish
entire strips of readers' letters, as a reflection of the connection of the publication with readers, as a way of attracting them to mutual communication.
The Golden Age of French Journalism - 1870-1914 - caused a rapid growth of the press. This is the time when newspapers and magazines become commercial enterprises. From 1870 to 1880, the number of newspapers increased from 900 to 2,500 titles. The press is becoming commercial, a type of mass newspaper is being formed where there should always be “blood” on the front page. In 1903, the newspaper Petit Parisienne (The Little Parisian) reached a record circulation of 1.3 million copies. and begins to come out with a subtitle - “The World's Largest Newspaper”. In 1918, the circulation grew to 3 million copies.
An important milestone in the development of the press in France was the Press Act of 1881, which abolished preliminary censorship, stamp fees, liens, warnings and other administrative penalties from the press, and the jury tried to address serious press violations of existing laws in the field of information dissemination.
The revolutionary trends characteristic of France brought to life a number of newspapers of the socialist and communist bloc. One of them, “Humanite” (“Humanity”, published since 1904), played an important role in the anti-war movement, then became the main printed organ of the French Communist Party (1921). The authority of the newspaper was significant during the period in France of the anti-fascist Popular Front (1934-1938), the union of left-wing parties. He published a large number of various newspapers and magazines (weekly Wandredi, Regar, monthly Commune, Aesop, etc.).
An important milestone was the appearance in 1931 of the daily evening newspaper “Paris Soire” (“Parisian Evening”), a large illustrated newspaper that used the latest achievements of printing technology and presented its materials in a special and attractive way. Its circulation in 1939 was 1.6 million copies.
During the years of the occupation of France by fascist Germany, the country's press was split into two camps: the vast majority of publications of the big press (the daily Tan, Ecué de Paris, Petit Parisien, Maten) went to cooperate with the invaders (occupational press) ); another arose in the course of the anti-fascist activities of the Resistance and came out illegally. Among them is the Communist newspaper “Umanite” (400 issues over the years of occupation). The Liberation Period (1944-1946) was marked by an increase in the number of left-wing publications, which corresponded to the policy of the left coalition government, consisting of representatives
Communist, socialist and catholic parties. Publications collaborating with the Nazis were banned.
However, with the onset of the Cold War (1946), the role of the left-wing press declines. There is a process of concentration of the press and restoration of the power of monopolies, in particular, on the information market. Monopolization encompassed not only the information system, but also the production of paper and printing equipment, a print distribution system. A number of newspapers (France Libre, Resistance, and Pay-Matin) ceased to appear, and the circulation of metropolitan and provincial newspapers fell. Of the new post-war newspapers, only one survived - the Cotidien de Paris, created in 1960
(Paris Daily Newspaper). During these years, there were several major spiritual, ideological and political publications: Figaro, France Soire (Evening France), Parisien Liber (Liberated Parisian), Oror (Morning Dawn), “ Pari Jour "(" Paris Day ") - right-wing newspapers, right-and center-left" Monde "(" World ")," Comba "(" Fight), "Croix" ("Cross"); the left - “Humanite”, “Popiler” (“People’s”), “Libration” (“Liberation”, came out before 1964). Until 1953, the Communists even published their evening Parisian newspaper Se Soire (Tonight) and a number of weeklies.
During the IV Republic (1946-1958) many magazines were also published: the right weekly Aspe de la France (Aspects of France, Rivarole, Carrefour (Crossroads); left-wing publications: Tan Modern (“ Present Times ”),“ France Observatory ”(“ French Observer ”), Express weekly.
The so-called “heart press” arose. The popular periodicals were Esprey (The Spirit), Lettres Frances (French
Literature ”),“ Revue de Paris ”(“ French Review ”) and others.
In the 1970s several new newspapers appeared - the new Libération, Matin de Paris (1977-1988). In 1976, for the first time, the provincial press came out on top in distribution. In 1980, the top ten most read newspapers included 4 Paris and 6 provincial. Since that time, there has been a constant reduction in the circulation of metropolitan newspapers. Free newspapers that appeared in recent decades, containing both journalistic materials, information from agencies, and advertising, especially in the field of employment, were in serious competition for many publications.
Now Parisian newspapers are published and distributed mainly in Paris and its environs. The province prefers regional and local publications. The process of concentration in the newspaper and publishing sector has complicated the survival of small and medium-sized newspapers. Therefore, since 1982, the French government has been providing assistance to newspapers of general and political information in French, the circulation of which is less than 250 thousand copies, distribution - 150 thousand copies, and advertising revenue does not exceed 25% of the total income. In addition, it subsidizes the expenses of all newspapers for mail, telephone, distribution abroad. In 1985, 1,500 periodicals of a wide thematic range were registered in France, from daily general information newspapers to the yearbook of associations and scientific societies. The following major categories of periodicals in France are distinguished:
General or political press (82 items, including 11 Paris newspapers);
Specialized periodicals (118 titles of the female press, 343 - youth; 7889 - technical and professional periodicals; sports, scientific, "erotic" and other periodicals;
Economic press;
Press of anger of the day and flight from reality (illustrated weekly journals, for example, “Paris match”);
Print document and statistics.
France occupies a leading position in terms of the development of periodicals (1,350 copies per 1,000 people).
The French press is controlled by monopolistic groups.
ASHETT Group. Founded in 1826 by Louis Ashett, takes 5th place among the cartels of the media of the Western world. In addition to magazines, he is a leader in publishing books, has connections with corporations in the UK, Spain, and the USA.
R. ERSANA group owns a large number of daily newspapers (France Soire, Figaro) and other periodicals - 30% of the daily national circulation of newspapers and 20% of the provincial. This is contrary to French law (one person can control no more than 30% of the general and political newspapers distributed in France). It publishes three newspapers in Belgium, has printing houses in several large cities in France.
PRESS DE LA CITE publishes 9 illustrated magazines, children's periodicals, and publishes books.
SEP-Communicational produces 60 periodicals, including those in the economic and professional fields, as well as the informatics and leisure press.
Expansion Group publishes 50 economic publications. Has connections with American capital.
BAYAR PRESS (founded in 1873) is engaged in the release of the Catholic press.
PLURICOMMUNICACION - a society that has united five enterprises producing daily newspapers - Parisian and provincial, in particular, the capital's Monde.
SOCIETE GENERAL DE LA PRESS publishes economic documentation.
There are others - PRUVO, AMORI, PHILIPPACHI, DUPEY.
The largest advertising agency GAVAS holds control over part of the press.
The Paris press is distributed in France by the NUVEL MESSAGERY DE LA PRESS PARISIEN. The provincial press is distributed by small cooperatives.
The French press actively collaborates with corporations of other countries in the field of media. This is a joint publication, and the interpenetration of capital in information companies.
The broadcasting, which existed before the Second World War on a private basis, was nationalized in 1944. His work, as well as the activities of TV (ORTF) is regulated by law. As state property, French television and radio until 1,974 was subordinate to the French Broadcasting and Television Directorate, which was subordinate to the Ministry of Information and Finance. In 1974, a reform was carried out in the field of audiovisual media. ORTF was dissolved. Instead, 7 independent organizations were created - three TV channels, a radio company, a TV production company, a state-owned television distribution company and the Institute of Audiovisual Media.
In 1982, a new reform was undertaken and a new law on radio and television was adopted, which guaranteed freedom of audiovisual communication, reaffirmed the right of citizens to free pluralistic communication, which is ensured by the functioning of broadcasting and television as public services. The supreme regulatory body has become the supreme body of audiovisual communication.
The 1986 Freedom of Communications and Media Concentration Law limited the issuance of broadcasting permits to one person if they could reach more than 30 million people with their cable TV or 4 million people on air. One person was forbidden to control more than 25% of the capital of the licensed group to the national broadcast program. He introduced other restrictions on property rights in this area.
French broadcasting has state programs, peripheral radio stations (50) and the system of private local radio stations that developed in the 80s. There is a state French international radio broadcasting in 17 languages.
In addition to state TV, private television stations are being created. In 1983, 1,268 permits for the creation of private radio stations were issued in the country; since 1,984, they have been allowed to transmit advertisements. Almost all major regional newspapers have their own radio stations.
Regular television broadcasting was started in France in 1935. It developed as a state one. In 1964, the 2nd program appeared; in 1972, the third. Since 1967, the transmission goes in color. Since 1968, advertising was allowed on TV (from 18 minutes a day, the allowed time increased to 12 minutes per hour).
In 1984, the 4th program and the first private program were created, which violated the state’s monopoly on TV.
In 1 986, two free private national programs of French television were created - “5” (news broadcasts) and M-6 (youth). Partial privatization of the third program began, followed by the privatization of the first TF1 program. 27 regional television stations were organized. Today, of the 6 channels of French TV, only two Antennas-2 and France-3 are the property of the state, the so-called public (for more details on the principles of public television, see the article on TV of the Scandinavian countries).
French journalism
first half XIX century in the power-press opposition system
The XIX century was the century of accelerated development of civilizational processes - both economically and socially. The turbulent changes taking place in European culture could not but affect the mental history of an individual nation, which, in turn, was reflected in the pages of the press, which chronicled the process of these changes and transformations.
If you make a short list of technological innovations in the first half of the century, this list will be more than impressive. Especially in the growth dynamics of these innovations.
One of the main requirements for the development of communication technologies was the acceleration of the transmission of information, that is, the establishment of convenient and reliable channels for the flow of information. The railway became such an “information channel”, which from a curiosity in the 1820s turned into a natural component of European life by the mid-nineteenth century, significantly reducing the time it takes to deliver mail and press to the addressee. What was previously required weeks has become a matter of one two days.
In the late 1830s, a series of inventions and innovations set the stage for the avalanche-like development of communication technologies. In 1837, the British Charles Wheatstone and William Cook patented a new invention - cable telegraph. In 1840, the telegraph alphabet appeared, proposed by the American Samuel Morse. Since 1844, the electric telegraph has been actively involved in everyday journalistic activities, significantly reducing the time from receiving information to delivering it to the reader.
In 1838, regular ship communication was established across the Atlantic Ocean, which reduced the journey from Europe to America to 30 days, and the Western world began to realize itself as a single information space.
In 1840, postage stamps were introduced in England (before this letter was paid by the addressee), and this innovation affected the growth of correspondence.
In 1838, Louis Dagger invented the daguerreotype (an early version of photography), which led to significant changes in the construction of an illustrative series in periodicals.
Another requirement for the development of communication technologies is the speed and speed of replication of the necessary information. Manual printing presses limited the ability of the press to increase circulation over a certain period of time.
Europe’s technocratic thought found a way out of this situation by using “the capabilities of a steam printing press invented by Saxon printer Frederic Koenig in 1810. Koenig's innovation did not find industrial application for a long time, until The Times used the Koenig machine in the publishing process in 1814 And this allowed the London newspaper to switch from producing 300 copies of the newspaper per hour on a printing press to producing 1,100 copies of the newspaper per hour using the new system.
A further breakthrough in the field of printing was the invention of the rotary printing press,<…> which, using roll paper, simultaneously printed both the front and the back with a capacity of almost eight thousand copies per hour. This spurt immediately had great consequences. Printing prices fell 25 percent "(90. P.45).
The next communication innovation was the emergence of news agencies. The world's first news agency appeared in 1835 in France. Its founder was Charles Louis Gavas, who began his activities in Paris with the Havas Translation Bureau, whose task was to quickly provide translations of the foreign press for the needs of local periodicals.
Subsequently, the Havasa news agency arranged to receive news from foreign newspapers, as well as created a wide network of its own correspondents and began to sell the received information to Parisian and provincial newspapers.
When the railroads were still a slow means of communication, and the telegraph was just beginning to become part of newspaper information practice, the Havasa agency successfully used pigeon mail to quickly receive information.
“Two capable pupils and imitators, B. Wolf and P.J. Reiter, who appeared in Havas, create news agencies of the press in Germany (1848) and in England (1851), respectively” (122. P.46).
In sync with technological innovations, scientific thinking has changed. As the German philosopher and culturologist V. Windelband accurately noted the essence of this era, "naturally - the scientific observation of phenomena was of extraordinary importance for the whole worldview and biography" (36. P.525). Faith in the power of scientific knowledge, assimilated from a generation of enlighteners, was reinforced by new discoveries, and the positivistic dominant projected onto all lines of thought and various social experiments, working in the name of their future and gradually abandoning their past.
Political transformations in the beginning and middle of the 19th century took place at a somewhat slower pace, clearly not keeping up with technological, ideological and cultural innovations, which led to political and social conflicts and upheavals.
It is enough to list the change of political elites during the first half of the period under review in order to see serious socio-political aberrations in both the political and sociocultural aspects. All this naturally affected a specific “small” person who became the object of action of the whole complex of changes taking place.
The period of the Empire, the period of Restoration (with two different vector periods), the period of the July monarchy (with the collapse of many hopes and illusions), the period of the Second Republic (with its utopian intentions) are all milestones of the complex development of national history, in which the press was assigned the role of a direct participant in this a process acting either as a “slave” or as a “leader” in a power-press relationship.
The development of French journalism was determined not only by technological progress and innovations in the field of communication, but also by the “censorship practice of the ruling elites” (58. P.5) in combination with the ideological struggle of various political and cultural trends.
The whole XIX century in French public life is characterized by an active ideological struggle, rooted in the "whirlpool of ideas" of the Great French Revolution.
Even during the period of the Empire, with its harshest dictatorship in relation to the press, ideological disputes went on implicitly, taking on the character of a hidden opposition.
The French periodical, which received freedom of speech under the Constitution of 1789 and lost all its freedoms during the Jacobin dictatorship, remembered past liberties when faced with the attack of the authorities on the rights of the press.
The Napoleonic Consular Decree on Newspapers, issued on January 17, 1800, closed 60 of the 73 newspapers published in Paris. The Minister of Police was charged with the duty of monitoring the press and ensuring that “newspaper editors were incorruptible morality and patriotism” (115. P.154).
Bonaparte, who perfectly understood the power of the press and once said that “four hostile newspapers are more dangerous than a hundred thousand bayonets” (90. P.37), when creating the Constitution of the empire (1804) approved the inclusion of four articles to guarantee freedom of the press, but who actually destroyed this freedom.
Therefore, in the absence of direct political opposition, the aesthetic and ideological “dissent” could express itself only in “Aesopian language”.
“Ideologists”, the younger generation of “encyclopaedists” who retained republican ideals, grouped around Pierre-Louis Zhengere’s magazine Decade philosophique, litteraire et politique (Philosophical, Literary and Political Decades, 1794-1807) and upheld liberal ideas in every way possible the era of the Empire until, in 1807, on the orders of Napoleon, irritated by their independence, this magazine was merged with the Journal de l Empire (Journal of the Empire).
Another focus of hidden opposition to the regime of the Empire was the so-called "counter-revolution", which aesthetically established a connection between the sentimentalism of the end of the Age of Reason and the romanticism of the 19th century. Denying the constitutional voluntarism of the Great French Revolution and dreaming of restoration, Louis de Bonald, Francois Rene Chateaubriand and Joseph de Mestre, somewhat similar and at the same time extremely distant from each other, relied on the ideas of the English wig Edmund Burke (1729-1797), this "the first theorist of counter-revolution" (208).
Viscount de Bonald (1754-1840), a zealous theoretician of theocracy and a former musketeer, was convinced that the Restoration was precisely that regime that should “establish the constitution of society, that is, return to the will of the creator” (208). In works such as "An Analytical Essay on the Laws of Nature" (1800), "The Original Law Considered by the Mind" (1802), he refuted "Rousseau, Montesquieu and other writers who prepared the revolution. In his opinion, starting from the Gospel to" Contrat social, "the fault of all revolutions was books<…> He blames the ruin of the century on “Gens de lettres”, an estate belonging exclusively to modern history, and offers purely draconian laws against typography ”(147. T.1.C.175-176).
De Bonald's “Original Legislation” came out in one year with the famous book “The Genius of Christianity” by Francois Rene de Chateaubriand (1768-1848). (At that time, both writers collaborated in the newspaper "Mercure de France"). Talking about practically the same thing - the revival of Catholicism in its original greatness - Chateaubriand and Bonald diverged in the essential understanding of the nature of religion and, as a result, in their views on the development of society. It is no accident that in the era of Restoration, the former allies became political opponents.
Paradoxically, the printed speeches of the "counterrevolutionaries" in 1802 coincided with the political interests of the Empire - primarily in terms of reconciliation with the Catholic Church.
"On April 18, 1802, a solemn prayer service was held on the occasion of concluding a concordat; on the same day appeared on the columns" Moniteur "a" review of the Fountain about the book "Geniene du christianisme", which had just been published. Bonaparte and Châteaubriant seemed to have united to raise the profile of religion. From a distance the impression is beautiful "(79. P.47).
Soon, however, the paths of the "counterrevolutionaries" and the emperor diverged, and Napoleon chose to remove from himself those who allowed themselves to think independently. Chateaubriand went as secretary of the embassy to Rome, and Joseph de Mestre (1753-1821), the third and most mysterious representative of this movement, who even saw the will of Providence in the revolution, was forced to spend fourteen years (1802-1816) in “likeness of exile, in St. Petersburg, living poorly, maintaining stoicism and judging from the height of spiritual greatness about events and people "(79. P.59).
Even the generally “ideologically neutral” Louis Francois Bertin, editor of the most popular newspaper during the years of the Empire, the Journal des Debats politiques et litteraires, turned out to be objectionable to the Napoleonic regime. “For his independence and barely hidden royalist hints, Bertin was imprisoned for 9 months, and then was sent to Italy, where he became friends with another exile - Francois Rene de Chateaubriand. In 1804, Bertin received permission to return to France, but his newspaper was renamed the "Journal de l" Empire ", and it was assigned a special censor (at first it was Fiev), which publishers had to pay a huge fee<…> In the year of the “great purge” that French journalism underwent in 1807, the Fieve censor in the Bertin newspaper was replaced by the censor Etienne. But this didn’t seem enough to Napoleon, and in 1811 the newspaper, whose circulation reached 32,000 copies, was confiscated in favor of the state, and Bertin was told that "he had already enriched himself enough" (90. P.38).
Napoleon initiated the adoption of the Press Decree of 1810, which led to the submission of the periodical press to the General Directorate of Printing and Book Trade, which was part of the Ministry of the Interior as a structural unit.
As a result, by 1811 only four daily newspapers were published in Paris - Journal de Paris, Gazette de France, Moniteur and Journal de l Empire, and the emperor himself didn’t really like them. In a letter to Fouche regarding the last two newspapers, Napoleon complained: "These two editions pretend to be religious before hypocrisy. Instead of taming the intemperance of the one-sided system of some philosophers, they attack philosophy and human knowledge. Instead of keeping sound criticism of the writers of this century, they rob them of energy, smuggle and destroy them. All this should not continue in this form "(117. P.146).
Napoleonic censorship negatively affected the cultural development of France. According to Auguste Bourgoin, "the official, faithful literature related to the government ... turned out to be very mediocre. Opposition members, opponents of the empire, like Chateaubriand, Ms. Steel, Joseph de Mestre, Benjamin Constant, or simply those writers who stood by , then, they alone were distinguished by talent or even genius. Not a single era, we think, shows with greater obviousness that freedom does not harm the development of the human mind "(117. P.118).
The fall of Napoleon's regime and the beginning of the Restoration led to a new situation for French journalism. The adoption of the "Constitutional Charter" of 1814 led to the formal restoration of freedom of speech in France. However, the illusions of restoring the principles of freedom of the press were destined to disappear quickly enough.
The law of October 21, 1814 returned preliminary censorship for all periodicals. An exception was made for compositions exceeding 20 printed pages, which automatically took the press beyond the limits of this censorship relief.
And the former "counter-revolutionaries", who became "traditionalists" in 1814, continued to defend the divine nature of society and preached a return to corporatism. "The monarchy should be governed only by divine laws, in other words, Christian principles" (208).
Francois-René Chateaubriand even entered the government, briefly becoming the Minister of Foreign Affairs of France, and, inspired by the Charter, in 1816 even published the pamphlet Monarchy According to the Charter, which he himself rated very highly.
“This brochure is one of my main achievements in the political field: it gave me a place in the ranks of eminent publicists; it helped the French to clarify the nature of our state system. English newspapers extolled this work to heaven” (144. P.329).
"Traditionalists", as an ideologically formed trend, hardly found understanding among pragmatically minded politicians of the Restoration period, and therefore L. Bonald and FR Chateaubriand, in collaboration with Abbot Felicite Robert de Lamenne (1782-1854) founded the ultra-royalist newspaper "Conservateur".
In this newspaper, F.R. Châteaubriant posted an article (dated December 5, 1818), devoted to comparing "moral" interest with "material" interest and exalting debt as opposed to self-interest, but which did not have such a wide resonance, which the author himself counted on.
The newspaper could not hold out for long and was closed for censorship reasons in 1820. It is worth noting that the censorship arrangements during the Restoration period changed at least seven times.
By the beginning of the 1820s, the following balance of forces had developed in French journalism, based on the pro-government or anti-government orientation of a particular periodical.
On the side of the government, with a combined circulation of 14,300 copies: Le Journal de Paris (Paris newspaper) (circulation 4175 copies), L'Etoile (Star) (circulation 2750), La Gazette "(circulation - 2370)," Le Moniteur "(" Moniter ") (circulation - 2250)," Le Drapeau blanc "(" White Banner ") (circulation - 1900)," Le Pilote "(" Pilot ") (circulation - 900).
In the opposition were: “Le Constitutionnel” (“Constitutionalist”) (circulation - 16250), “La Quotidienne” (“Everyday life”) (circulation - 5800), “Le Courrier francais” (“French Herald”) (circulation - 2975 ), "Le Journal de Commerce" ("Newspaper of Commerce") (circulation - 2380), "L'Aristarque" ("Aristarchus" (circulation - 925), with a total circulation of 28300 copies.
The quantitative advantage of the opposition press was noted by Stendhal, who wrote that “in every village the tavern read Le Constitutionnel, while the Le Journal des Debats are read only in castles” (188. P.191).
The royalist government, thanks to censorship of intricacies, managed to change the balance of power for its own benefit for some time (44,000 against 12,500), but the situation became different due to the new position of the editor of Le Journal des Debats.
Bertenov’s “Le Journal des Debats”, which supported the monarchical government until 1824, went into sharp opposition after the removal of FR Chateaubriand from the ministerial post, adding its circulation of 13,000 copies to the total number of unfriendly publications.
F.L.Bertin, a close friend of F.R. Chateaubriand and a monarchist by conviction, found himself offended and published an article in Le Journal des Debats, in which he described the relationship between the government and the independent press:
"The policy of the current government offends the feelings of the French nation ... The constitutional monarchy honors public freedoms; it sees in them the support of the monarch, people and laws.
Under representative government, we mean something completely different. A company is being compiled (or even - for competition - two rival companies) to bribe newspapers. On incorruptible editors, without a twinge of conscience, they are sued; they hope to discredit them through scandalous trials and indictments. Since this scandal is disgusting to decent people, to protect the royalist ministry they hire parasquilants who once used to sprinkle mud on the royal family. The case is for everyone who served in the old police and crowded under the door of the imperial chambers; so the captains of our neighbors recruit sailors in taverns and dens. Convicts, referred to as free writers, work in five to six newspapers bought with giblets; their writings are referred to in the language of ministers as public opinion "(144. P.348).
The attempt to return to absolutism and suppress fundamental public freedoms provoked a response from the opposition camp, which sharply criticized the government.
The authorities clearly did not keep pace with the changing moods in society, trying to control the situation with the usual methods. Nor did the coming to power in 1828 of the Minister JB Martignac with his idea to unite ultra-reactionaries and liberals.
One of the ideologists of liberalism was Benjamin Constant (1767-1830), who postulated the supremacy of individual freedoms and insisted on the principle of popular sovereignty. In his main work, “The Course of Constitutional Politics” (1818-1820), by “individual rights” he meant freedom of the individual, trial by jury, freedom of conscience, inviolability of property and freedom of the press.
A group of "doctrinaires" led by François Guizot (1787-1874), a supporter of the English constitutional monarchy, in which "the king would establish the fourth power" (150. T. 4.80), turned out to be ideologically close to the concept of B. Constant.
On February 1, 1820, François Guizot and his group created the newspaper Le Courrier (Courier) in order to provide a platform for speeches to those who, after the disappearance of L’Archives philosophiques (Philosophical Archives), were left without their own publication. The time to start the publication was chosen very well - the period of maximum censorship exemptions. The newspaper took a tough "doctrinaire" position, opposing the orientation of the right-wing newspapers.
G. Vermorel was invited to the editorial office, but could not keep the level of the declared publication, which led to a drop in interest from readers. Then the newspaper changed its name to "Le Courrier francais" ("French Courier") and under Benjamin Constan began to be perceived as a defender of liberal ideas.
The political crisis came in 1830 with the advent of the Ministry of Jules-Armand Polignac, when Charles X decided to completely suppress freedom of speech. The opposition began to create new print media. Already in the early days of January 1830, Adolf Thiers, Auguste Mignier and Arman Carrel, dissatisfied with the inactive position of Le Constitutionnel, founded the newspaper Le National (Nationalist), which in many ways became the catalyst for the events.
"I deployed the" Monitor "and, not believing my eyes, read the official reports. Another government in their right mind and solid memory decided to jump from the tower of Notre Dame Cathedral!<…>
The press is a new element, an unprecedented power that has come to the world recently; this word that has become lightning, this is social electricity. Is it in your power to destroy her? The more you oppress her, the sooner an explosion will occur. Therefore, you need to make peace with the press, just as you made peace with the steam engine.<…>
The first ordinance abolishes almost completely the freedom of the press; it is the quintessence of everything that has been hatched for a decade and a half in the bowels of the secret police "(144. S.401-402).
The ordinances, destroying the freedom of the press, caused a stormy negative reaction from both journalists and the whole of French society. Adolf Thiers, refuting the thesis of former minister A.E. Richelieu that “journalism is universal corruption” (188. P.200), published an article on July 26 in the newspaper Le National, which became a kind of declaration by Parisian newspapermen about disobeying the authorities .
About 40 editors of leading Paris publications (Le Constitutionnel, Le Globe, Le Temps (Vremya), Figaro, Le Journal de Paris) signed the text of the manifesto, and not by chance The events of July 27, culminating in an armed uprising, are sometimes called the "journalist revolution."
“Charles X hastened to take his decrees back, removed the most odious ministers, but it was too late. The interim government, consisting of leading journalists and deputies, decided to transfer royal power to Louis-Philippe of Orleans, who did not claim absolute power. The period of the July monarchy began and was a new Constitutional Charter was adopted, in which it was written that “censorship can never be restored” (90. P.40-41).
Louis Philippe, who came to power, not only amended the abolition of censorship, but announced an amnesty for journalists accused of political motives. Therefore, the first years of the July monarchy were marked by unprecedented activity of the French press.
Election reform doubled the number of voters, which increased the number of “voting citizens” interested in both politics and the press. For the press, this fact meant an increase in circulation, as evidenced by the following statistics.
The average circulation of Paris newspapers for 1830 was 60,998 copies. In March 1831, the circulation increased to 81,493 copies, that is, by one third. Especially this growth affected left-wing newspapers: the Le Constitutionnel circulation increased from 18,622 copies to 23,333, Le Courrier from 5,491 to 8,750, Le Temps from 5,150 to 8,500, Le National from 2 321 to 3,283.
In general, the circulation of all publications increased: “Le Journal des Debats” selling 11,715 copies, increased sales to 14,700, “La Gazette de France” had instead of 9,801 copies in 1830, 12,400 copies in 1831. Consequently, the July Revolution brought visible commercial benefits to both left and right and centrist publications.
However, it soon turned out that the dialogue between the authorities and the press failed again. Instead of dialogue, prosecutions of journalists began. Between 1831-1832, there were more than 400 trials of the press. Journalists from the opposition camp were sentenced by court order to a total of 65 years in prison and to pay 350,000 fine francs.
The place of detention for journalists was mainly the Saint Pelage prison, whose director treated his “own” political prisoners with some respect. Charles Filipon, editor of the La Caricature newspaper and the king of political caricature, once in this prison in 1832, met a whole company of colleagues in it - the editor of the La Tribune newspaper A. Marr, the draftsman O. Domier and others. In St. Pelage Prison S. Philipon and developed a project to create the famous cartoon newspaper "Le Charivari" ("Cavardac").
Many imprisoned journalists bothered about transferring from the prison to the clinic of the mentally ill Dr. Pinel. The prefect of the Paris police, Giscquet, recalled this epidemic of “madness” in his memoirs: “Although the fierce attacks of the newspapers should inspire me with vengeful feelings, I rendered services to reporters more than once! Most of those who were sentenced to more or less lengthy sentences it’s not about me that their newspapers described me, and therefore they asked me to be transferred to the medical building, and I tried to give such permission to everyone who asked for it, namely: Schaeffer, the editor of National, Baskan - Tribune Editor; Philipon; Caric Editor ature ", Nyujan - editor of" Revenant ", Briand - editor of" Quotidienne ", Benard - publisher of" Cancan ", Charles Moris - editor of" Courrier de Spectacle "and many others" (112. P.63).
The Paris press, despite a good acquaintance with the imprisonment, entered into confrontation with the government, the answer was the law of December 16, 1834, which obliged street sellers of newspapers, as well as all distributors of printed matter, to ask for special permission from the municipal authorities.
The failed assassination attempt on the king ("The Infernal Machine of Fieschi") initiated the tightening of repressive measures against the press (September laws of 1835): the amount of the mandatory deposit was doubled, daily newspapers had to pay 100 thousand francs, newspapers published twice a week - 75 thousand francs, weekly publications - 50 thousand francs, magazines - 25 thousand francs
To complicate the opening of new newspapers, the law required that the responsible editor of the publication personally own at least a third of the collateral. If this amount was reduced and the responsible editor could not make up for it, then it should have been replaced by another person who owned the necessary capital. In the case of the imprisonment of the responsible editor, he was to be replaced by the acting editor who had the required amount of collateral. If this was not found, the newspaper was closed during the arrest of the editor-in-chief.
Imprisonment for a term of 5 to 20 years and a fine of 10 thousand to 50 thousand francs. were used for “any insult to the person of the king and attacks against the foundations of the political system, committed by the press” (188. P.205). (For comparison, similar punishments under the law of 1819 ranged from 3 months to 5 years in prison and from 50 to 6000 francs.)
The French were also forbidden to “declare themselves Republicans, interfere with the king’s person in the discussion of government actions, express a wish or hope for the overthrow of the monarchical or constitutional order or for the restoration of the deposed government, recognize the right to the throne for members of the exiled royal family, publish the names of jurors before or after the trial , print reports on secret sessions of jurors, arrange subscriptions in favor of convicted newspapers. suspend for up to four months newspapers that have been convicted twice during the course of one year.Finally, drawings, emblems, prints and lithographs could only be exhibited, published and sold with the prior permission of the censorship, which thus opened the doors again "(120. S.266-267)
During heated discussions, the opinions of commentators are reduced to two, but dimetrically opposed. From "nefig to insult other people's shrines" to "Muslims are completely brutalized, and journalists are well done." In fact, the reason for the death of journalists is not related to Islam, insulting the prophet and others. Journalists fell victim to mediocre fanaticism. Civilization has always been tested for strength by barbarism, but when barbarism is mixed with fanaticism, an explosive mixture is obtained. Insulting the feelings of believers is a very vague category. Here I am, for example, a supporter of common sense. And I, accordingly, should be hurt by the very fact of the existence of theocratic states in the modern world. Well, I believe that such a form of government offends common sense. However, I am opposed to killing citizens of these countries. But this is only because I'm not a fanatic ...
The cartoons published in the satirical French magazine are truly provocative. But they did not violate the laws of France. There are countries where authors of this kind would be executed immediately. However, the magazine was published in the republic with other laws. Civilized ways to assert their rights - demonstrations, rallies, legislative initiatives. For example, a drunken fool sits in a minibus with bloodshot eyes and suddenly says to the bespectacled man opposite: "What are you staring at? Huh?" and then hits him in the face. Bespectacled did not break the law. Will we justify a drunken freak? After all, he really was offended. And you don’t stare! I have a gun, I have the right, but you don’t have a gun, so you don’t have rights either - this is not even the Middle Ages, this is a much earlier period of human development.
Why is it so easy to recruit youth to the Islamic State? Because there are many of these legalized. Do you want sex? No problem, capture the concubine in battle. Tired of a concubine? No problem, sell your “Mujahid” to your brother. That is, a primitive understanding of Islam leads to the fact that the slave trade is allowed, and rape is legal. And what? All according to Sharia! But what is religion? This is a philosophical and moral picture of the world. When it is put at the service of politics, it turns out National Socialism (a primitive interpretation of Nietzsche’s philosophy was used), and Islamism (Islam is used). Imagine a gopnik who decided to rob for a reason, but for ideological reasons. And he says: “I am now a nationalist” and I will rob only non-Russians. But since there are few non-Russians, you still have to rob everyone. But the robbed Russians are now declared wrong Russians - “sympathize with the chocks,” “do not support the country's liberation from non-Russians,” etc.
The same garbage happens with the gopniks, who took "Islam" as the idea. They have “infidels” and “wrong Muslims” who do not support violence. Now we add the unacceptability of doubt here and we get the same fanaticism that allows us to do whatever our heart desires in the name of an idea. Common sense tells us that God cannot be offended. And if God were offended, he would be able to punish the offender himself, without resorting to the services of scumbags. But bigotry rejects common sense. Common sense tells you that if something seems unacceptable to you, it’s best to stay away from it. But fanaticism is unthinkable without masochism. Imagine a situation where I hung pornography on my house. And people who adhere to strict moral standards come to visit me. They strongly condemn me, but continue to come to me to continue to suffer from the sight of "obscene pictures." Absurd? Not for the fanatic.
Russia has a law on the protection of religious feelings of believers. I do not like him, but I will abide by him, for my religion is the law. In France there is no such law. The Islamists in this attack seem to say: "We will live according to the laws of another society and we spit on the laws of France. And if someone looks at us incorrectly, we will be beaten in the face." They are citizens of the republic, but reject its laws. Did journalists deserve death? Exactly in the same degree as the bespectacled man who dared to look at the drunken face in the minibus. The goal of the Islamists is not journalists or civilians. Their goal is the radicalization of Muslims. And for this you need to form a hatred of them. How to form hatred? Make everyone think that Muslims commit terrorist attacks. But Islamism is not Islam. Not every person using the camera is a photographer, not every person with a scalpel is a surgeon.
Alas, I am again right in pessimistic forecasts. Caricatures insulting the prophet scattered across the Internet, and several mosques were attacked in France. The Islamists again achieve their goals, and Muslims have only two options - to be terpils or to join fanatics. And this will be so until the Muslims themselves begin to fight with jihadists, caliphates and Islamists. Sooner or later they will have to learn to separate the grain from the chaff.
Monarch's lawyer Eric Dupont-Moretti told France Info in an interview: “This is beyond my comprehension. A journalist who claims to not publish his book in exchange for money is something unheard of! Never before has a head of state come across such blackmail. ”
Writer and journalist 68-year-old Eric Laurent and his partner Catherine Gracier are known in France for their journalistic investigations. Publishing House Editions du Seuil reported that journalists were preparing to publish a book, which was due to be released “in January-February” 2016. Journalists already published the book “The King of Predator” (“Le roi prédateur”) in 2012 at the same publishing house. The King of Morocco did not like their investigation then, the Huffington Post reports, and the Spanish daily El Pais was banned from distribution in Morocco after it published excerpts from the book.
Jeune Afrique recalls that Eric Laurent already published a book in 1993 that included an interview with King of Morocco Hassan II, the father of Mohammed VI. “This is the only publication in this genre about the former ruler that came out in perfect harmony with the Palace,” said Jeune Afrique on the website. Eric Laurent began his work in the newspaper Figaro, currently working for the French radio France Culture.
Catherine Gracier is a freelance journalist and specialist in Mogrib, who worked in Morocco for the Journal hebdomadaire. Gracier has written several investigative books, including the so-called dossier of Sarkozy-Gaddafi. The book, in which one of the former Libyan officials talks about financing the election campaign of Nicolas Sarkozy by the regime of Muammar Gaddafi, was published by Seul in 2013. A colleague and co-author, Catherine Gracier Nicolas Bo, told France-Presse that her detention in Paris and suspicion of blackmail “shocked him.” I knew that Catherine was preparing this project (a book about the King of Morocco). ” According to Nicolas Bo, this kind of "crime" is "not like" Catherine Gracier.
French police detained Eric Laurent and Catherine Gracier on August 27. They are accused of trying to extort 3 million euros from the King of Morocco, said the palace's lawyer Eric Dupont-Moretti in an interview with French radio station RTL. In exchange for the indicated amount, the reporters allegedly offered to cancel the publication of the book.
France Info reports that about a month ago, Eric Laurent turned to the office of the monarch in order to obtain information. A meeting with the king's adviser was organized in Paris in August. At this point, Eric Laurent requested 3 million euros so that the book would not appear in print. After Muhammad VI learned about the essence of the conversation in Paris, his lawyers filed a complaint in France. During the preliminary investigation, another meeting was organized for journalists and the king’s adviser. Eric Laurent then confirmed his terms. And during the third meeting on August 27, journalists Eric Laurent and Catherine Gracier received 80,000 euros in advance, signing a paper saying that they refuse to publish their book. This meeting was supervised by the police. The investigation has audio recordings and photographs.
Franz print appears later German and English, but its development is easier and more intensive. The French press was notable for its substantial content. Already the first fr. the leaflet went beyond a simple message and tried to arouse sympathy for certain ideas in society.
The peculiarity of the development is a strict determination of political processes. Fr. The press often changed, depending on changes in the political system. It is France that owes the merit of forming a revolutionary press.
Stages of journalism in France:
1. The middle of the 15th - 17th centuries Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The emergence of the seal.
2. 17th century - the appearance of the first printed newspapers
3. 18 century - The era of enlightenment. French revolution.
5. 20th century (1st half of the 20th century)
6. Modernity (20th half of the 20th century)
The emergence of universities, appear handwritten "Flying Leaves" (NUVEL), for the exchange of information between universities. Universities have put into circulation Guttenberg's printing press. The first printing house appeared in Paris in 1470. Religious publications, almanacs of calendars were printed.
By the end of the 15th century, there were about 50 printing houses.
The first periodical - yearbook (1611 g) "Mercurfransua" ("French Bulletin"). Publishes the university. This is the prototype of the tabloid press.
Canard (canard-curious story) - a unique national phenomenon fr. journalism. Journalistic folklore. Small brochures, on very bad paper, with a huge amount of errors. They were very popular. They were sold at the walls of the royal palace, loudly shouting names that attracted buyers with sensationalism.
By the end of the 16th century the first printed chronologies appear - news collections. On their basis in the 17th century a newspaper yearbook “ French mercury"(Mercure de France), had an influence on the public life of France, was the most popular. 17 century
2. The first newspaper in France is considered " La gazette"- 1631 year. Publisher TeofastRenodo. Created by in the image of leaflets in Europe.It is official (it is not formally connected with the government, but actually holds its views), is generally accessible. There was no subscription. Contained court messages, military messages. "La gazette" is a prototype of modern newspapers. It can be considered the first political newspaper.
“LaGazette” was distinguished not only by a large variety of news from various countries, the absence of rumors, but also by its clarity, clarity, and most importantly, the quality of its style.
Paid advertising began to be placed in LaGazette. In 1632, Renodo publishes first print ad sheetunder the name “FeuilleduBureaud" adresse, which is a line advertisement. The main sections are: “Sale and rental of real estate”, “Sale of furniture” and “Miscellaneous.” “Renodo was the first French journalist to give the first private announcements in the press,” - so Mark Tangate defined his role in the history of advertising.
It is worth noting that Renodot, unlike the founders of other newspapers, did not belong to the corporation of publishing publishers, and the newspaper itself, according to many researchers, was created "by order" of the almighty Richelieu, who became the cardinal of France in 1622 and headed the Royal Council in the year 1624.
3. Slow development of journalism - illiteracy of the population, disorganization of public life, strict censorship.
Moral weeklies are actively developing, for example, “ French viewer"Antoine Prevost, CREATED BY THE SAMPLE OF THE ENGLISH" VIEWER ". Due to censorship, the number of underground publications was growing.
However, the "true" history of Fr. The press began with the French Revolution (1789-1794). The declaration of human and civil rights, the constitution, and therefore the quantitative and qualitative growth of periodicals, have been adopted.
Journalism takes shape, it is always categorical, an evaluation component appears in the texts. The high level of literature gives rise to the feuilleton genre (In the newspaper De deb - Newspaper debate. Louis-Francois Bertin decided to issue additional pages to his newspaper "JournaldesDebates" (feuilleton - leaflet, leaflet). Then in 1803 he changed the format of the newspaper - lengthened it downward, and the additional part, separated from the newspaper by the “cut line” (white pass), became known as the feuilleton)
The first major newspaper appeared: De France magazine". It was not widespread. When the French revolution began to gain momentum, favorable times began for the press. Freedom of the press was announced, many daily newspapers began to appear, but many immediately disappeared. Main features - Newspapers of that time were deeply politicized, different forces used them as tribunes of political struggle.
The party disappeared, and the newspaper disappeared.
Newspaper Eber Daddy Duchenne"- one of the most famous periodicals of the democratic press of the period of the great French revolution. Papa Duchenne is a collective type, representing a person from the people, a small trader who will always expose any injustice, abuse.
Newspaper Jean Paul Marat " Friend of the people"was the organ of revolutionary democracy. Literate Parisians read aloud from the first days of the revolution. The merits of his journalism: consistency, passion, simplicity and accessibility, strict factual justification of the requirements.
Exposure was the main subject of his journalism. He developed whole newspaper campaigns around a particular event or person.
This rampant revolutionary journalism soon stopped Napoleon, he understood the sheer power and influence of the press. He believed that 4 hostile newspapers were more dangerous than 100 thousand pieces. At first, only 13 newspapers were allowed, and then 4: GazettedeFrance, JournaldeParis, Journaldel Empire (formerly known as the Journal de Deba) and Moniteur.
4. 19 century After the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo on the throne, Louis 18 - the last king of the French Bourbon dynasty - a new era of French. journalism. When the Bourbons were allowed to express their opinion, within the law. In the 19th century, journalism in France enjoyed almost complete freedom.
Ultra-royalist newspapers appear (for strengthening royal power). The February Revolution (1848) flooded the press with the same abundance of newspapers as the First Great Revolution. In the second half of the 19th century (the era of the Second Empire), new large political newspapers appeared. Became the most influential The Temps. From the small press came forward " Figaro».
Figaro, Temp, Monite"- elite journalism, the most popular editions. In the 19th century.
In 1835, the world's first Havas news agency was founded. Its founder was the famous French writer and journalist Charles-Louis Gavas (1783-1858). Born in Rouen, received a good education, having discovered special abilities for languages. I decided to use my good knowledge of foreign languages \u200b\u200band began to make translations from European periodicals. He offered these reviews of the foreign press to Paris periodicals. With the invention of the telegraph, Havas received the status of a full-fledged telegraph agency. So the Havas news agency came into being. The agency’s services were used by the influential Parisian newspapers Journal de Deba, Constitucionel, Press, Siecl, and later Havas organized a wide network of European correspondents transmitting information from the host countries. In 1853, almost all Paris daily newspapers published the heading "Messages from the telegraph agency," which published information from the Havas agency. It was Gavas that was the first to report the beginning of the Crimean War in September 1854. After the death of Havas, the agency was inherited by his son Auguste Gavas. The Gavas agency lasted until 1940. In 1944, the France Press news agency was created on the basis of the Gavas.
In France, the appearance of publications "pennypress" associated primarily with names Louis Desiree Verona and Emile de Girardin.Girardin founded the political newspaper " Lapresse”(“ Press ”). The new newspaper Girardin attracted readers not only with a low subscription price, but also with brilliant journalistic names (for example, Theophile Gauthier, who led the section of art-critical feuilleton). Girardin managed to turn his newspaper into an independent publication, and publications in LaPresse often irritated the authorities. ABOUT THE PUBLICATION OF NOVELS WITH THE CONTINUATION OF ANDRE ZHID !!!
Veron in 1835 became the publisher of the newspaper "Constitutionel", which gained popularity thanks to the opening of such a new (purely newspaper) genre as the feuilleton novel.
The end of the 19th century - the Dreyfus affair (the official was accused of spying for the German Empire) - the formation of civil society in Fr.
5. The "Golden Age" of French journalism - the end of the 19th, beginning of the 20th centuries - caused a rapid growth of the press. The press is becoming commercial, a type of mass newspaper is being formed where there should always be “blood” on the front page.
The Dreyfus case - the trial (1894-1906) in the case of espionage in favor of the German Empire, which was accused of an officer of the French General Staff, a Jew from Alsace (at that time German territory) captain Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935). The process played a huge role in the history of France and Europe at the end of the 19th century.
Opinions were expressed in the press that Dreyfus's guilt was not proven and that he had fallen victim to a miscarriage of justice; a facsimile of bordero was printed in Matin, which aroused a strong doubt among many about the ownership of this document by Dreyfus (which would be evidence of his innocence). In 1896, Lazar's pamphlet appeared: Judicial Mistake (Une erreur judiciaire), which proved Dreyfus' innocence (but this did not affect the court sentence).
“I Accuse” (French “J’accuse”) - an article by the French writer Emile Zola, published in the daily newspaper Oror (French “L’Aurore”) on January 13, 1898.
It was written in the form of an open letter addressed to French President Felix Forum, and accused the French government of anti-Semitism and unlawful imprisonment of Alfred Dreyfus. Zola pointed out the bias of the military court and the absence of serious evidence.
The letter was printed on the front page of the newspaper and caused a stir both in France itself and far beyond its borders. Zola was accused of libel and convicted on February 23, 1898. To avoid prison, the writer fled to England. He was able to return to France only after the suicide of Colonel Henry and the flight of Major Esterhazy, the two main figures in the Dreyfus affair in June 1899.
Zola's article caused a wide resonance in the cultural world, becoming a proof of the influence that the intellectual elite is able to exert on those in power.
In 1904, the newspaper was founded Humanite (humanity) Jean Jaurès. She was socialist, pacifist.
1914-1918 The First World War. The war of 1914 caused both a sharp reduction in the number of newspapers and their volume, as well as changes in their design and content. The difficulties of wartime: the mobilization of a significant part of employees, paper restrictions, difficulties with transportation, the reduction of advertising revenues, and finally, the strict censorship of information messages.
Since August 1914, the government has banned the publication of any report on military events other than those coming from the Press Office of the War Department. A frequent guest on the pages of newspapers is a caricature figure "Anesthesia"A sullen old woman looking like an owl with a long nose in the form of censorship scissors. Next to her was usually a bucket of white paint, with which she painted newspaper columns.
In 1916, the Inter-Ministerial Press Commission (engaged in the distribution of paper, equalizing newspaper prices, setting the maximum volume, etc.) was later transformed, in 1918, into the National Press Service (ONP) - the first parity institution, whose activities actually extended to all administrative and financial problems of the press.
Difficulties did not concern only the Big Four. " Ptiparizien"Brought its circulation to 2 million copies. By 1918, the circulation " Mathen"- 1 000 000." Magazine"- 500 thousand. Until 1917, confidently went forward and" Journal", its circulation quickly grew to 400 thousand. This five deserved the trust of the government, and only she was given permission to distribute in the army. The daily newspaper Gustave Teri, created in 1916, was allocated "Ovr" where was printed henri Barbusse's novel, Fire.
The war caused the development of the press and accelerated its evolution.
Among the "trench" publications, uniting the best cartoonists and artists, were Bayonet and Mo"Who spoke from anti-war positions. But in the trenches there were also “patriotic” leaflets with characteristic headings: “Brave”, “Laughter under the explosions”, “They will be done away with!”
The press played a large role in the victory of the big bourgeoisie in the 1919 elections.
In the period between the two wars, a new information tool is developing rapidly and becoming mass broadcasting.For fifteen years (from 1924 to 1939), the number of radios grew in France from 60 thousand to 5.2 million. Private broadcasting arose and developed. Already in 1928, there were 11 state-owned radio stations (two in Paris, 9 in the provinces) and 14 private (four in Paris, 10 in the provinces).
During the years of the occupation of France by fascist Germany, the country's press was split into two camps: cooperation with the invaders; the other arose in the course of anti-fascist resistance activity and came out illegally.
6. newspapers prefer not to advertise a certain political orientation. The overall tone has become more neutral.
In total, in Paris in 1910, about 60 daily newspapers were published, 25 of them with a circulation of less than 500 copies. The bulk of periodicals were numerous specialized publications. In the Yearbook of the French Press for 1914, their list covers 300 pages: these were newspapers for car and aircraft enthusiasts, for visitors to racecourses, lawyers, military personnel of all ranks, financiers, traders, salespeople, etc., etc. There was even a newspaper lactating women. " In search of an audience, Parisian newspapers are even more active in reaching out to the provincial reader.
Quality Editions: Daily Leonde"(The largest circulation, read outside the FR). " Lefigaro"- the credo: the closest to its readers. " Liberation"- more progressive. It became the first French print publication to open its website on the Internet. Mass: " France-Soir ”,“ Ptiparisien ”,“ Bird Magazine ”.French printing is under the control of several media associations (ASHETT, Hersan's group, Havas, Parisien, Bayard-press, Expanion).
TV: The TV system was created as a system of state TV and was used by the state as an effective tool in foreign and domestic policy. Then it changed (as an instrument of civic consensus). It is forbidden to service more than 5 TV channels by one operator. FranceTelevision Holding, Antenna 1.
Radio: by the beginning of the 21st century, Fr. radio had retained the attention of a wide audience due to the variety of channels and programs. National Broadcasting Company RadioFrance. IA: France Press (the largest franc. IA. It was founded in the middle of the 20th century on the basis of IA Gavas).
Shchankina Julia